Córdoba

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Following table shows all the logical operators supported by C language. Assume variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then − && Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands are non-zero, then the condition becomes true. (A && B) is false. Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two. C-SPAN.org gives you access to C-SPAN's daily coverage of Washington and more than 200,000 hours of extensively indexed and archived C-SPAN video.

Córdoba, Caliphate of

a feudal state on the Iberian Peninsula, whose capital was the city of Córdoba. It emerged from the Córdoba Emirate, founded in A.D. 756 by the Umayyad Abd-al-Rahman I, who fled to Spain to escape persecution by the Abbasids. By the end of the ninth century the emirate had virtu-ally disintegrated into separate feudal estates. Abd-al-Rahman III restored the political unity of the state, proclaiming himself caliph in 929. Like their predecessors, the Córdoba emirs, the rulers of the caliphate fought numerous wars against the Iberian Christian states of Asturias and Navarre. The caliphate was a centralized tyranny. The hajib (chamberlain) was the head of the state bureaucracy and the most important official after the caliph.

The caliphate was dominated by the great landed aristocracy, both Arab-Berbers and some Visigoths, who had either adopted Islam (Arabic, muwallads; Spanish, renegados) or remained Christian (Mozarabs). The large merchants also occupied a prominent place in the state. The peasantry were the basic producers, with slave labor playing a significant role in agricultural production on large noblemen’s estates. The dominant form of exploitation was the share-cropping lease, under which the peasant’s portion did not exceed one-third of the harvest. In exacting dues the tax was calculated on the basis of the standing crop. Urban artisans and small tradesmen suffered from tax farming. The Mozarab and Jewish urban lower classes, on whom the rulers of the communities imposed the heaviest tax burdens, were increasingly exploited. The rigid control established by Abd-al-Rahman III and intensified under Hajib al-Mansur aggravated the hard lot of the laboring population and at the same time helped the ruling elite to weaken temporarily the resistance of the popular masses. In the Córdoba Emirate of the eighth and ninth centuries the struggle of the popular masses had taken the form of armed uprisings, for example, the uprisings in Toledo and Córdoba in 814 and in Córdoba in 829 and 854.

The caliphate, especially in the period of its greatest flowering (tenth century), was economically one of the foremost states in Europe, with an advanced agriculture and highly developed handicraft production in state workshops, in which slave labor was widely employed. Shipbuilding and mining were also important. The number and population of towns grew significantly.

The development of trade and the caliphate’s growing international importance led to the widening of diplomatic ties. Embassies were sent to Byzantium in 945 and 955, and Germany in 955 and 969.

A brilliant and unique culture and learning developed in the caliphate. Its scholars were instrumental in preserving the traditions of classical learning in Europe. The policy of religious toleration, which the rulers of the caliphate pursued until about 1010, fostered the participation of both Muslims and non-Muslims in the development of learning and culture.

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The beginning of the llth century saw the onset of feudal decline; between 1009 and 1031 there were six caliphs, none of whom exercised real power. In 1031 the last caliph, Hisham III, was overthrown and expelled from Córdoba, and the caliphate disintegrated into many small emirates.

The most important rulers of the caliphate were Abd-al-Rahman III (ruled in 912–961, emir prior to 929); al-Hakam II (961–976); Hajib Muhammad ibn Abu Amir al-Mansur (Almanzor in medieval European sources), actual ruler (976–1002) of the caliphate after the death of al-Hakam II; and al-Muzaffar (1002–08), the son of al-Mansur.

The C Programming Language (sometimes termed K&R, after its authors' initials) is a computer programmingbook written by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, the latter of whom originally designed and implemented the language, as well as co-designed the Unixoperating system with which development of the language was closely intertwined. The book was central to the development and popularization of the C programming language and is still widely read and used today. Because the book was co-authored by the original language designer, and because the first edition of the book served for many years as the de facto standard for the language, the book was regarded by many to be the authoritative reference on C.^[1][2]

History[edit]

C was created by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in the early 1970s as an augmented version of Ken Thompson's B.^[3]Another Bell Labs employee, Brian Kernighan, had written the first C tutorial,^[4]and he persuaded Ritchie to coauthor a book on the language.^[5]Kernighan would write most of the book's 'expository' material, and Ritchie's reference manual became its appendices.

The first edition, published February 22, 1978, was the first widely available book on the C programming language. Its version of C is sometimes termed K&R C (after the book's authors), often to distinguish this early version from the later version of C standardized as ANSI C.^[6]

In April 1988, the second edition of the book was published, updated to cover the changes to the language resulting from the then-new ANSI C standard, particularly with the inclusion of reference material on standard libraries. The second edition of the book (and as of 2018, the most recent) has since been translated into over 20 languages. In 2012, an eBook version of the second edition was published in ePub, Mobi, and PDF formats.

ANSI C, first standardized in 1989 (as ANSI X3.159-1989), has since undergone several revisions, the most recent of which is ISO/IEC 9899:2018 (also termed C17 or C18), adopted as an ANSI standard in June 2018. However, no new edition of The C Programming Language has been issued to cover the more recent standards.

Reception[edit]

Byte magazine stated in August 1983, '[The C Programming Language] is the definitive work on the C language. Don't read any further until you have this book!'^[1]Jerry Pournelle wrote in the magazine that year that the book 'is still the standard ... a bit terse'. He continued, 'You can learn the C language without getting Kernighan and Ritchie, but that's doing it the hard way. You're also working too hard if you make it the only book on C that you buy.'^[7]

Influence[edit]

The C Programming Language has often been cited as a model for technical writing, with reviewers describing it as having clear presentation and concise treatment. Examples generally consist of complete programs of the type one is likely to encounter in daily use of the language, with an emphasis on system programming. Its authors said:

We have tried to retain the brevity of the first edition. C is not a big language, and it is not well served by a big book. We have improved the exposition of critical features, such as pointers, that are central to C programming. We have refined the original examples, and have added new examples in several chapters. For instance, the treatment of complicated declarations is augmented by programs that convert declarations into words and vice versa. As before, all examples have been tested directly from the text, which is in machine-readable form.

The book introduced the 'Hello, World!' program, which prints only the text 'hello, world', as an illustration of a minimal working C program. Since then, many texts have followed that convention for introducing a programming language.

Before the advent of ANSI C, the first edition of the text served as the de facto standard of the language for writers of C compilers. With the standardization of ANSI C, the authors more consciously wrote the second edition for programmers rather than compiler writers, saying:

Appendix A, the reference manual, is not the standard, but our attempt to convey the essentials of the standard in a smaller space. It is meant for easy comprehension by programmers, but not as a definition for compiler writers—that role properly belongs to the standard itself. Appendix B is a summary of the facilities of the standard library. It too is meant for reference by programmers, not implementers. Appendix C is a concise summary of the changes from the original version.

The influence of The C Programming Language on programmers, a generation of whom first worked with C in universities and industry, has led many to accept the authors' programming style and conventions as recommended practice, if not normative practice. For example, the coding and formatting style of the programs presented in both editions of the book is often referred to as 'K&R style' or the 'One True Brace Style' and became the coding style used by convention in the source code for the Unix and Linuxkernels.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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1. ^ ^abWard, Terry A. (August 1983). 'Annotated C / A Bibliography of the C Language'. Byte. p. 268. Retrieved 31 January 2015.
2. ^Prinz, Peter; Crawford, Tony (2005-12-16). C in a Nutshell. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 3. ISBN9780596550714.
3. ^Ritchie, Dennis M. (1993). 'The Development of the C Language'. History of Programming Languages, 2nd Edition. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
4. ^'Leap In and Try Things: Interview with Brian Kernighan'. Harmony at Work. October 24, 2009. Archived from the original on July 23, 2012. Retrieved 2013-03-03.
5. ^Computerphile (2015-08-18). ''C' Programming Language: Brian Kernighan - Computerphile'. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
6. ^Kernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (February 1978). The C Programming Language (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-110163-3.
7. ^Pournelle, Jerry (December 1983). 'The User Looks at Books'. Byte. p. 519. Retrieved 24 July 2016.
8. ^ ^abKernighan, Brian; Ritchie, Dennis M. (March 1988). The C Programming Language (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-110362-8.

External links[edit]

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• The C Programming Language, first edition available at the Internet Archive
• 'C Programming'. Bell Labs Computing Sciences Research Center. 2004-06-13. Archived from the original on 2017-02-21. Retrieved 17 January 2017.. Another archived page: 'The C Programming Language'. 2016-02-04.

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